The theory behind color legibility and the practical application of color begins and ends with understanding color in 3-D form. Within 3-D color theory are triadic relationships between the source, the object and the observer. To accurately predict color legibility, these three components must be considered both individually and in their totality. Each of these components involves numerous factors. Understanding how to account for naturally occurring situations or man-made environments will enable you to ensure color appearance and legibility.
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Creative Director: David Dye
Typographers: David Wakefield and Mike Pratley
The black face on
top of the warm background
(figure 30) flattens the image to a 2-D
plane by contradicting our
learned perception of color.
The 2-D plane accentuates the
dramatic change in meaning
that occurs when the image is
rotated 180 degrees.
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The juxtaposition of warm
and cool colors can be used
to increase the illusion of 3-D
space. For example, the fullcolor
pyramids (b–e) allude to
deeper space than the blacktinted
pyramid (a). In addition,
a cool purple (d and e) may
recede more than a warm
purple (b and c) due to the
perception of colors in the
distance as diffused. Tints
of a color may further help to
increase the sense of depth by
defining a greater shadow area
(a and d).
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When warm and cool colors are
juxtaposed on a 2-D surface, be it print-based,
interactive, or any other 2-D surface,
a 3-D illusion is created. This illusion can
also be utilized in a 3-D environment in
order to enhance the dimensionality of the
surroundings. This dramatically affects the
design options for architecture, and for
packaging, industrial, landscape, interior,
and textile design. The environments in
which we live shape this color illusion.
The cones located outward on the
retina wall, which are physically different
from those near the fovea (near midpoint),
correspond to cool and warm colors.
Blue, bluish-green, and black (cool colors)
emit lightwaves that measure from 380–500
nanometers (nm) and send a negative
electrical impulse to the primary visual
cortex and other parts of the brain. Yellow,
yellow-green, red, and white (warm colors)
emit lightwaves that measure from
500–700nm and send a positive electrical
impulse. A fully saturated purple has the
unique ability to move up and down the
nanometer light spectrum a great deal,
depending upon the individual primary
color build. In other words, if purple is
perceived to be a warm color, the majority
of the color build that makes up the color is created by magenta in subtractive
color mixing. For a purple to be perceived
as cool, the majority of the color build is
made up from cyan.
An object colored black or dark blue that
is placed in the sun will be much hotter
than the same object colored white. This
statement (cool colors are hotter than warm
colors) may seem an oxymoron at first, but
the notion of colors appearing warm and
cool is to do with a psychological response,
cultivated by our past understanding of
how objects appear in our environment.
For example, fire has a warm color, and the
ocean a cool color. Both of these examples
contradict the above example; viewing color
is a different experience than touching it.
Objects that are in the distance appear to
the eye to be tinted blue. This perception
is the result of an atmospheric condition
that creates diffuse scattering, lowering the
intensity of light reaching the observer, and
bringing these colors into a cooler range.
Objects that are in the foreground of
our environment are more apt to have a
much higher chroma rating because diffuse
scattering does not take place. This creates
the appearance of a warmer color, and there
is more of the object for the eye to behold.
For example, if we hold a brightly colored
object in our hands, irrespective of its color, the object will appear to the eye as warmer
in color than if the object is placed at a
distance. The chroma of a color has a
great deal to do with the “cool” or “warm”
response of the viewer. Therefore, when
using cool and warm colors on a 2-D plane
to create a 3-D illusion, chroma can be
utilized to create the scale of volume found
within the illusionary space.
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Illustrator/Designer: Tom Engeman
An intense
orange on a vibrant blue
background will have a
shortened depth of field in
comparison with a tint of
orange on shades of blue.
For example, figure 31 at left appears to have a shallower
depth of field than figure 32 at right.
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Experience dictates that a dark
object (a) placed in the sun will
appear to be hotter than a light
object (b) under the same
conditions. Sometimes cool
colors are hotter than warm
colors in reality—the
perception of color is relative
to our psychological response
and the context.
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Both
pyramids are equal in scale,
however, the blue pyramid may be perceived as
slightly smaller than the
orange pyramid due to
our learned perception of
color. Due to an atmospheric
condition that creates diffuse
scattering, objects in the
distance appear to be cooler in
color and therefore, objects
that are equally scaled may
appear unequal due to their
color. Likewise, objects that
are of the same color will
appear different when placed
at a distance.
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Illustrator/Designer: Paul Middlebrook
The warmth of
magenta is increased with
yellow in this piece (figure 33). Although
the depth of field is narrow,
hierarchy and legibility is
established through subtle
increases in the warmth
of each color.
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Pronounced
simultaneous contrast will
diminish the dimensionality of
an object as the background
color attempts to jump in front
of the foreground color and
then back again. The cyan and
magenta pyramids (a and b)
vibrate to maximum effect
because each is composed of
the pure printing colors
(CMYK). The red and green
(c and d) would strobe more
effectively in an additive
environment such as motion
graphics. In this book, magenta
and yellow create red, and
cyan and yellow create green.
The impurity of these colors
with subtractive color theory
will decrease the degree of
simultaneous contrast.
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When using warm and cool colors to create
a 3-D illusion on a 2-D plane, we must
always take into consideration simultaneous
contrast. If using a warm and a cool color
of the same chroma, or color value rating,
simultaneous contrast will most likely occur.
If it does, the 3-D illusion will cease to exist
due to the strobing effect associated with
pronounced simultaneous contrast. This
effect causes the background color to jump
in front of the foreground color and then
back again as long as the viewer is beholding
the object. When a 3-D illusion on a 2-D
plane is desired, understanding which
color combinations create pronounced
simultaneous contrast, and how their
corresponding differential ratings can be
managed to create an acute color effect is
essential to great design.
With subtractive color mixing, warm and
cool colors are traditionally created through
the four primaries—cyan, magenta, yellow,
and black. Other subtractive color mixing
systems are available, for example, Pantone,
Toyo, and TRUMATCH. The primaries of
these systems all differ. Whether a warm,
cool, or neutral color is created depends
upon the amount of each primary used.
To create a neutral color, including neutral
black or gray, an equal proportion of hues
must be utilized to build the color. To create a neutral secondary color, equal amounts
of two primary colors must be utilized.
In other words, if a color matrix is used to
create neutral colors, the incremental steps
of both primaries must be proportionately
identical. For example, neutral green and
its tints are created from equal amounts of
yellow and cyan. To create a neutral tertiary
color, equal proportions of two secondary
colors must be utilized. If these proportions
are not equal, the hue created will be either
a warm or a cool tint.
Black or shades of neutral grays are created
in one of two ways. The first, to use only
black in a four-color process printing, will
create a neutral black and neutral grays.
The second way to create a neutral black
and gray is to use cyan, magenta, and
yellow, in equal proportions. If each of these
three primaries is used at 100 percent of
color, a neutral black will result. However,
this black will not be as vivid as the fourth
primary—black—used in four-color process
printing. In addition, this second way of
creating black for four-color process printing
is not recommended due to the amount of
ink that will be placed on the paper. This
will create excessive dot gain and will
therefore diminish any tonal qualities
within the area where black and dark
gray are created.
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The cool colors in
this interior spread (top, 34) are created
through a large percentage of
cyan and black. The black adds
depth to the images. The red in the lower image (35) is relatively cooled
by the addition of cyan to
the ink build.
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To create a
warm color using a four-color
process there must be:
- a high percentage of
magenta, yellow, or
magenta/yellow
- a high percentage of
magenta and yellow with
a low percentage of cyan
- a high percentage of
magenta and yellow with a
small percentage of black
- a high percentage of
magenta with a lower
percentage of cyan
- a high percentage of
magenta with a small
percentage of black
- a high percentage of yellow
with a smaller percentage
of cyan; or
- a high percentage of
yellow with a small
percentage of black.
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To create a
cool color using a four-color
process, there must be:
- a high percentage of cyan
or black
- a mixture of cyan and black
- a large percentage of cyan
with a slightly smaller
percentage of magenta
or yellow
- black with a slightly smaller
percentage of cyan and an
even smaller percentage
of magenta, yellow, or
magenta/yellow; or
- a large percentage of cyan
with a smaller percentage
of either magenta, yellow,
or magenta/yellow.
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Illustrator/Designer: Hiroyuki Matsuishi
The neutral black
of this poster (figure 36) produces a cold
foreshadowing effect
accomplished through the
use of line and a scattered
dot pattern.
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Black is a highly underutilized color. If used
correctly, it can be altered to shift the mood
of a piece. Oftentimes we overlook the fact
that black can have either a warm or a cool
tint. Depending upon the circumstance, a
black can be tinted warm by the utilization
of magenta, yellow, or magenta/yellow.
A cool black can be created by tinting the
color with cyan. When using the fourth
primary black, an excessive amount of color
tinting will also create dot gain, whether
by adding a large percentage of a second
primary, or two equal amounts totaling a
large percentage—over 50 percent.
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